클레이튼 가상머신 (구 버전 문서)
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NOTE: This document contains the KLVM used before the activation of the protocol upgrade. If you want the latest document, please refer to .
The current version of the Klaytn Virtual Machine (KLVM) is derived from the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). The content of this chapter is based primarily on the . KLVM is continuously being improved by the Klaytn team, thus this document could be updated frequently. Please do not regard this document as the final version of the KLVM specification. As described in the Klaytn position paper, the Klaytn team also plans to adopt other virtual machines or execution environments in order to strengthen the capability and performance of the Klaytn platform. This chapter presents a specification of KLVM and the differences between KLVM and EVM.
KLVM is a virtual state machine that formally specifies Klaytn's execution model. The execution model specifies how the system state is altered given a series of bytecode instructions and a small tuple of environmental data. KLVM is a quasi-Turing-complete machine; the quasi qualification stems from the fact that the computation is intrinsically bounded through a parameter, gas, which limits the total amount of computation performed.
KLVM executes Klaytn virtual machine code (or Klaytn bytecode) which consists of a sequence of KLVM instructions. The KLVM code is the programming language used for accounts on the Klaytn blockchain that contain code. The KLVM code associated with an account is executed every time a message is sent to that account; this code has the ability to read/write from/to storage and send messages.
We use the following notations and conventions in this document.
A := B
: = A를 <code> B로 정의하는 데 사용됩니다.
"스마트 컨트랙트"와 "컨트랙트"라는 용어를 번갈아 사용합니다.
We use the terms "opcode" as the "operation code/operation"
The following tables summarize the symbols used in the KLVM specification.
BC
블록체인
B
Block
B_header
현재 블록의 블록 헤더
S
상태(State)
S_system
시스템 상태
S_machine
머신 상태
P_modify_state
상태 수정 권한
T
Transaction
T_code
실행할 머신 코드를 포함하는 바이트 배열(byte array)
T_data
입력 데이터를 포함하는 바이트 배열. 실행 에이전트(execution agent)가 트랜잭션인 경우, 이것은 트랜잭션 데이터가 됩니다.
T_value
Pep 단위로 표기된 값이 실행 과정 중에 계정을 전달됩니다. 만약 실행 에이전트가 트랙잭션이라면 이 값은 트랜잭션 값이 됩니다.
T_depth
현재 메시지 호출 또는 컨트랙트 작성 스택의 깊이 (즉, 현재 호출 또는 실행 횟수)
G
가스
G_rem
연산에 사용하기 위한 남은 잔여 가스
G_price
실행 시작한 트랜잭션의 가스 가격
A
Address
A_code_owner
실행 코드를 소유한 계정의 주소
A_tx_sender
현재 실행을 시작한 트랜잭션의 발신자 주소
A_code_executor
코드를 실행한 계정의 주소. 실행 에이전트가 트랜잭션이라면, 이는 트랜잭션 발신자(transaction sender) 가 됩니다.
F_apply
주어진 상태에 입력된 트랜잭션을 적용하고 결과 상태 및 출력을 반환하는 함수
KLVM is a simple stack-based architecture. The word size of the machine (and thus the size of stack items) is 256-bit. This was chosen to facilitate the Keccak-256 hash scheme and the elliptic-curve computations. The memory model is a simple word-addressed byte array. The stack has a maximum size of 1024. The machine also has an independent storage model; this is similar in concept to the memory but rather than a byte array, it is a word-addressable word array. Unlike memory, which is volatile, storage is nonvolatile and is maintained as part of the system state. All locations in both storage and memory are initially well-defined as zero.
The machine does not follow the standard von Neumann architecture. Rather than storing program code in generally accessible memory or storage, code is stored separately in virtual read-only memory and can be interacted with only through specialized instructions.
The machine can execute exception code for several reasons, including stack underflows and invalid instructions. Similar to an out-of-gas exception, these exceptions do not leave state changes intact. Rather, the virtual machine halts immediately and reports the issue to the execution agent (either the transaction processor or, recursively, the spawning execution environment), which will be addressed separately.
Fees (denominated in gas) are charged under three distinct circumstances.
The first and most common is the constantGas. It's a fee intrinsic to the computation of the operation.
Second, gas may be deducted to form the payment for a subordinate message call or contract creation; this forms part of the payment for CREATE, CALL and CALLCODE.
Finally, gas may be charged due to an increase in memory usage.
Over an account's execution, the total fee payable for memory-usage payable is proportional to the smallest multiple of 32 bytes that are required to include all memory indices (whether for read or write) in the range. This fee is paid on a just-in-time basis; consequently, referencing an area of memory at least 32 bytes greater than any previously indexed memory will result in an additional memory usage fee. Due to this fee, it is highly unlikely that addresses will ever exceed the 32-bit bounds. That said, implementations must be able to manage this eventuality.
Storage fees have a slightly nuanced behavior. To incentivize minimization of the use of storage (which corresponds directly to a larger state database on all nodes), the execution fee for an operation that clears an entry from storage is not only waived but also elicits a qualified refund; in fact, this refund is effectively paid in advance because the initial usage of a storage location costs substantially more than normal usage.
Scalar values representing constantGas of an opcode
G_base
2
GasQuickStep
ADDRESS, ORIGIN, CALLER, CALLVALUE, CALLDATASIZE,
CODESIZE, GASPRICE, COINBASE, TIMESTAMP, NUMBER,
DIFFICULTY, GASLIMIT, RETURNDATASIZE, POP, PC, MSIZE, GAS
G_verylow
3
GasFastestStep
ADD, SUB, LT, GT, SLT, SGT, EQ, ISZERO, AND,
OR, XOR, NOT, BYTE, CALLDATALOAD,
MLOAD, MSTORE, MSTORE8, PUSH, DUP, SWAP
G_low
5
GasFastStep
MUL, DIV, SDIV, MOD, SMOD, SIGNEXTEND
G_mid
8
GasMidStep
ADDMOD, MULMOD, JUMP
G_high
10
GasSlowStep
JUMPI
G_blockhash
20
GasExtStep
BLOCKHASH
G_balance
400
BalanceGas
BALANCE
G_sload
200
SloadGas
SLOAD
G_jumpdest
1
JumpdestGas
JUMPDEST
G_sha3
30
Sha3Gas
SHA3
G_call
700
CallGas
CALL, CALLCODE, STATICCALL, DELEGATECALL
G_create
32000
CreateGas
CREATE, CREATE2
G_extcodesize
700
ExtcodeSizeGas
EXTCODESIZE
G_extcodehash
400
ExtcodeHashGas
EXTCODEHASH
Scalar values used to calculate the gas based on memory and log usage
G_memory
3
MemoryGas
Amount of gas paid for every additional word when expanding memory
G_copy
3
CopyGas
Partial payment for COPY operations, multiplied by words copied, rounded up
G_log
375
LogGas
Partial payment for a LOG operation
G_logdata
8
LogDataGas
Amount of gas paid for each byte in a LOG operation's data
G_logtopic
375
LogTopicGas
Amount of gas paid for each topic of a LOG operation
Scalar values used to calculate the gas of the particular opcode
G_sset
20000
SstoreSetGas
Amount of gas paid when the storage value when set storage
G_sreset
5000
SstoreResetGas, SstoreClearGas
Amount of gas paid when the storage value remains unchanged at zero or is set to zero
R_sclear
15000
SstoreRefundGas
Refund Gas given (added to the refund counter) when the storage value is set to zero from nonzero
G_exp
10
ExpGas
Partial payment
G_expbyte
50
ExpByte
Partial payment when multiplied by ceil(log_256(exponent))
G_selfdestruct
5000
SelfdestructGas
Amount of gas paid for a SELFDESTRUCT operation
R_selfdestruct
24000
SelfdestructRefundGas
Refund Gas given (added to the refund counter) for self-destructing an account
G_callvalue
9000
CallValueTransferGas
Amount of gas paid for a nonzero value transfer
G_callstipend
2300
CallStipend
Free gas given at beginning of call for a nonzero value transfer
G_newaccount
25000
CallNewAccountGas
Amount of gas paid when creating an account. It is also be defined as CreateBySelfdestructGas with SELFDESTRUCT operation.
G_codedeposit
200
CreateDataGas
Amount of gas paid per byte for a creating a contract that succeeds in placing code into state
G_sha3word
6
Sha3WordGas
Amount of gas paid for each word (rounded up) for an SHA3 input data
Items to calculate the precompiled contracts gas
Precompiled contracts are special kind of contracts which usually perform complex cryptographic computations and are initiated by other contracts.
For example, gas cost can be calculated simply like below, but some gas cost calculation functions are very complex. So I would not explain the exact gas cost calculation function here.
0x01
ecrecover
EcrecoverGas
3000
0x02
sha256hash
Sha256BaseGas, Sha256PerWordGas
60, 12
0x03
ripemd160hash
Ripemd160BaseGas, Ripemd160PerWordGas
600, 120
0x04
dataCopy
IdentityBaseGas, IdentityPerWordGas
15, 3
0x05
bigModExp
ModExpQuadCoeffDiv
20
0x06
bn256Add
Bn256AddGas
150
0x07
bn256ScalarMul
Bn256ScalarMulGas
6000
0x08
bn256Pairing
Bn256PairingBaseGas, Bn256PairingPerPointGas
45000, 34000
0x09
vmLog
VMLogBaseGas, VMLogPerByteGas
100, 20
0x10
feePayer
FeePayerGas
300
0x11
validateSender
ValidateSenderGas
5000
The gas cost of one transaction is calculated through the methods described below. First, gas is added according to the transaction type and input. Then, if the contract is executed, opcodes are executed one by one until the execution ends or STOP operation appears. In the process, the cost is charged according to the constantGas defined for each opcode and the additionally defined gas calculation method.
Below is a brief explanation of the gas calculation logic during contract execution using the fee schedule variables defined above. As it assumes a general situation, unusual situations such as revert appears is not considered.
add constantGas defined in each opcode to gas
e.g. if an opcode is MUL, add G_low to gas
e.g. if an opcode is CREATE2, add G_create to gas
add the gas which is calculated through additionally defined gas calculation method
For LOG'N', where N is [0,1,2,3,4], add G_log + memoryGasCost * g_logdata + N x G_logtopic to gas
For EXP, add G_exp + byteSize(stack.back(1)) x G_expbyte to gas
For CALLDATACOPY or CODECOPY or RETURNDATACOPY, add wordSize(stack.back(2)) x G_copy to gas
For EXTCODECOPY, add wordSize(stack.back(3)) x G_copy to gas
For SHA3, add G_sha3 + wordSize(stack.back(1)) x G_sha3word to gas
For RETURN, REVERT, MLoad, MStore8, MStore, add memoryGasCost to gas
For CREATE, add memoryGasCost + size(contract.code) x G_codedeposit
For CREATE2, add memoryGasCost + size(data) x G_sha3word + size(contract.code) x G_codedeposit to gas
For SSTORE,
From a zero-value address to a non-zero value (NEW VALUE), add G_sset to gas
From a non-zero value address to a zero-value address (DELETE), add G_sreset to gas and add R_sclear to refund
From a non-zero to a non-zero (CHANGE), add G_sreset to gas
For CALL, CALLCODE, DELEGATECALL, STATICCALL,
if it is CALL and CALLCODE and if it transfers value, add G_callvalue to gas
if it is CALL and if it transfers value and if it is a new account, add G_newaccount to gas
if the callee contract is precompiled contracts, calculate precompiled contract gas cost and add it to gas
add memoryGasCost + availableGas - availableGas/64, where availableGas = contract.Gas - gas to gas
For SELFDESTRUCT,
if it transfers value and if is a new account, add G_newaccount to gas
if the contract has not suicided yet, add R_selfdestruct to refund
실행 환경은 시스템 상태 S_system, 연산을 위해 남은 가스 G_rem, 실행 에이전트가 제공하는 정보 I으로 이루어져 있습니다. I는 다음과 같이 정의된 튜플입니다.
I := (B_header, T_code, T_depth, T_value, T_data, A_tx_sender, A_code_executor, A_code_owner, G_price, P_modify_state)
실행 모델은 F_apply 함수를 정의하는데, 이로 결과로 나온 상태 S_system', 잔류 가스 G_rem ' , 발생한 하위 상태 A 및 결과적인 출력 O_result 를 계산할 수 있습니다. 현재는 다음과 같이 정의합니다.
(S_system', G_rem', A, O_result) = F_apply(S_system, G_rem, I)
여기서 우리는 발생된 하위 상태인 A는 suicides 집합인 Set_suicide, 로그 시리즈 L, 접근한 계정의 집합 Set_touched_accounts , 그리고 환불 G_refund의 튜플로 정의된다는 것을 기억해야 합니다.
A := (Set_suicide, L, Set_touched_accounts, G_refund)
대부분의 실제 구현에서 F_apply는 전체 시스템 상태 S_system과 머신 상태 S_machine 쌍의 반복적인 진행으로 모델링됩니다. 형태적으로, 우리는 상태 머신에서 하나의 사이클의 결과값을 정의하는 이터레이터 함수 O와 현재 상태가 예외적으로 중단된 머신 상태인지 확인하는 함수 Z, 그리고 현재 상태가 정상적으로 중단된 머신 상태일 경우에만 명령어의 출력 데이터를 지정하는 H를 사용하는 함수 X를 이용하여 재귀적으로 정의합니다.
빈 시퀀스 ()는 빈 Set을 가리키는 Set_empty와는 다릅니다. 이는 H의 결과를 해석할 때 중요한데, 실행을 계속해도 된다면 결과가 Set_empty이고 실행이 중지되어야 한다면 결과가 (아마도 비어 있을)시퀀스이기 때문입니다.
F_apply(S_machine, G_rem, I, T) := (S_system', S_machine,g', A, o)
(S_system', S_machine,g', A, ..., o) := X((S_system, S_machine, A^0, I))
S_machine,g := G_rem
S_machine,pc := 0
S_machine,memory := (0, 0, ...)
S_machine,i := 0
S_machine,stack := ()
S_machine,o := ()
X((S_system, S_machine, A, I)) :=
(Set_empty, S_machine, A^0, I, Set_empty) if Z(S_system, S_machine, I)
(Set_empty, S_machine', A^0, I, o) if w = REVERT
O(S_system, S_machine, A, I) · o if o != Set_empty
X(O(S_system, S_machine, A, I)) otherwise
where
o := H(S_machine, I)
(a, b, c, d) · e := (a, b, c, d, e)
S_machine' := S_machine except
S_machine,g' := S_machine,g - C(S_system, S_machine, I)
이는 F_apply를 계산할 때
남은 가스 S_machine,g'를
결과로 남은 머신 상태 S_machine'에서 차감한다는 의미입니다.
따라서 Z가 true 즉 현재 상태에 예외가 발생했으며 머신이 반드시 중지되어야 하고 따라서 모든 상태 변화는 무시되는 상황이 될 때까지, 또는 H가 (Set_empty가 아닌) 시퀀스가 될 때 즉 머신이 통제 가능한 중지 상황에 이를 때까지 X는 재귀적으로(보통 실제 구현은 단순한 반복 루프 사용) 반복해서 정의됩니다.
머신 상태 S_machine는 튜플 (g, pc, memory, i, stack)로 정의됩니다. 이는 사용 가능한 가스량, 프로그램 카운터 pc (64-bit unsigned integer), 메모리 컨텐츠(memory contents,), 현재 메모리에 있는 단어 수(position 0부터 계속 카운팅), 스택 컨텐츠(stack contents)를 의미합니다. 메모리 컨텐츠 S_machine,memory는 사이즈가 2^256이며 0으로 이루어진 series입니다.
Z, H와 O를 정의하기 위해, w를 실행할 현재 연산으로 정의합니다.
w := T_code[S_machine,pc] if S_machine,pc < len(T_code)
w :=STOP otherwise
참고: 이 장은 나중에 업데이트 될 예정입니다.
앞에서 언급했듯이 현재 KLVM은 EVM을 기반으로합니다. 따라서 현재 사양은 EVM의 사양과 매우 유사합니다. KLVM과 EVM의 몇 가지 차이점은 다음과 같습니다.
KLVM은 peb, ston 또는 KLAY와 같은 Klaytn의 가스 단위(unit)를 사용합니다.
KLVM은 사용자로부터 가스 가격을 입력 받지 않습니다. 대신, 플랫폼이 정의한 값을 가스 가격으로 사용합니다.
Klaytn팀은 KLVM과 EVM간의 호환성을 유지하려고 노력하지만 Klaytn이 점차 구현되고 발전함에 따라 KLVM 사양이 업데이트되며, EVM과 비교하여 더 많은 차이가 생겨날 수 있습니다.
참고: 이 장은 나중에 업데이트 될 예정입니다.
The fee schedule G is a tuple of 37 scalar values corresponding to the relative costs, in gas, of a number of abstract operations that a transaction may incur. Also, there's gas items to calculate the gas of the precompiled contracts called by CALL_* opcodes. For other tables such as intrinsic gas cost or key validation gas cost, please refer to
For ease of reading, the instruction mnemonics written in small-caps (e.g., ADD) should be interpreted as their numeric equivalents; the full table of instructions and their specifics is given in the section.